a) x4 + x2 - 27x - 9
= (x4 - 27x) + x2 - 9
= x(x3 - 27) + (x - 3)(x + 3)
= x(x - 3)(x2 + 3x + 9) + (x - 3)(x + 3)
= (x - 3)(x3 + 3x2 + 9x + x + 3)
= (x - 3)(x3 + 3x2 + 10x + 3)
b) x2 - xy - x + y
= x(x - y) - (x - y)
= (x - 1)(x - y)
c) xy + 4 - x2 + 2y
= (xy + 2y) - (x2 - 4)
= y(x + 2) - (x - 2)(x + 2)
= (x + 2)(y - x + 2)
d) xy + y - 2(x + 1)
= y(x + 1) - 2(x + 1)
= (y - 2)(x + 1)