a) x2- 2x - 4y2 - 4y = (x2 - 2x + 1) - (4y2 + 4y + 1) = (x - 1)2 - (2y + 1)2 = (x - 1 - 2y - 1)(x - 1 + 2y + 1) = (x - 2y - 2)(x + 2y)
b) x3 - 4x2 + 12x - 27 = (x3 - 3x2) - (x2 - 3x) + (9x - 27) = x2(x - 3) - x(x - 3) + 9(x - 3) = (x2 - x + 9)(x - 3)
d) x4 - 2x3 + 2x - 1 = (x4 - 2x3 + x2) - (x2 - 2x + 1) = (x2 - x)2 - (x - 1)2 = (x2 - x - x + 1)(x2 - x + x - 1)
= (x2 - 2x + 1)(x2 - 1) = (x - 1)2(x - 1)(x + 1) = (x - 1)3(x + 1)
e) x4 + 2x3 - 4x - 4 = (x4 + 2x4 + x2) - (x2 + 4x + 4) = (x2 + x)2 - (x + 2)2 = (x2 + x - x - 2)(x2 + x + x + 2) = (x2 - 2)(x2 + 2x + 2)