a, x^11 + x + 1 = x^11 - x^8 + x^8 - x^5 + x^5 - x^2 + x^2 + x + 1
= x^8( x^3 - 1 ) + x^5 ( x^3 - 1) + x^2 ( x^3 - 1 ) + x^2 + x + 1
= x^8 ( x - 1 )( x^2 + x + 1) + x^5 ( x - 1)( x^2 + x + 1) + x^2 ( x - 1)( x^2 + x + 1) + x^2 + x + 1
= (x^2 + x + 1)( x^9 - x^8 + x^6 - x^5 + x^3 - x^2 + 1)
b, x^8 + x + 1 = x^8 - x^5 + x^5 - x^2 + x^2 + x + 1 ( tách tương tự )
c, x^4 + 4 = x^4 + 4x^2 + 4 - 4x^2
= ( x^2 + 2 )^2 - 4x^2
= ( x^2 - 2x + 2 )( x^2 + 2x + 2)