a) x12 + 4 = x12 + 4x6 + 4 - 4x6 = (x6 + 2)2 - (2x3)2
= (x6 - 2x3 + 2)(x6 + 2x3 + 2)
b) 4x8 + 1 = 4x8 + 4x4 + 1 - 4x4 = (2x4 + 1)2 - (2x2)2
= (2x4 + 2x2 + 1)(2x4 - 2x2 + 1)
c) x7 + x5 - 1 = x7 - x + x5 + x2 - (x2 - x + 1) = x(x6 - 1) + x2(x3 + 1) - (x2 - x + 1)
= x(x3 - 1)(x3 + 1) + x2(x + 1)(x2 - x + 1) - (x2 - x + 1)
= (x4 - x)(x + 1)(x2 - x + 1) + (x3 + x2)(x2 - x + 1) - (x2 - x + 1)
= (x5 + x4 - x2 - x + x3 + x2 - 1)(x2 -x + 1)
= (x5 + x4 + x3 - x - 1)(x2 - x + 1)
d) x7 + x5 + 1 = x7 - x + x5 - x2 + (x2 + x + 1)
= x(x3 - 1)((x3 + 1) + x2(x3 - 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= (x4 + x)(x - 1)(x2 + x + 1) + x2(x - 1)((x2 + x + 1) + (x2 + x + 1)
= (x2 + x + 1)(x5 - x4 + x2 - x + x3 - x2 + 1)
= (x2 + x + 1)(x5 - x4 + x3 - x + 1)