a. x2 + 4xy + 4y2 - 2x - 4y
= (x + 2y)2 - (2x + 4y)
= (x + 2y)2 - 2(x + 2y)
= (x + 2y)(x + 2y - 2)
= (x + 2y)[x + 2(y-1)]
b. x2 - 8x + 7
= x2 - x - 7x + 7
= x(x - 1) - (7x - 7)
= x(x - 1) - 7(x - 1)
= (x - 7)(x - 1)
c. xy - xz - y + z
= x(y - z) - (y - z)
= (x - 1)(y - z)
d. x3 + 4x2 + 4x
= x3 + 4x2 + 4x + x2 - x2
= x2(x + 1) + 4x(x + 1) - x2
= (x2 + 4x - x2)(x + 1)
= 4x(x + 1)